What Are Problems Of The Meeting In Animal Farm

1 Introduction: Overview of the Challenges Facing the Animate being Agriculture Enterprise

CHALLENGES TOWARD THE YEAR 2050

Reinvigorating creature agricultural enquiry is essential to sustainably accost the global challenge of food security^ⁱ. The need for food from animal agriculture is predictable to nearly double by 2050. Increased demand is due, in office, to a predicted increment in world population from 7.2 billion to between ix and 10 billion people in 2050 (United Nations, 2013). The increment in population puts additional force per unit area on the availability of land, water, and energy needed for creature and crop agronomics. During this period, information technology is also anticipated that there will exist significant growth in per capita animal meat consumption related to increasing urbanization and income in developing countries. Global environmental challenges, including global climate change, and the growing threat of affliction transmission to and from agronomical animals add further challenges to sustainably meeting the demand for animal agriculture in 2050. Even in a stable globe, the animal agricultural research enterprise would be significantly challenged to aid rectify the current unequal distribution of animate being calories and the demand to integrate social science research so equally to better sympathize and respond to changing consumer preferences. Furthermore, a vibrant animal research enterprise will exist central to an constructive response to potential threats to animal agriculture to ensure global food security (Box 1-1 provides a brief summary of challenges facing sustainable brute agriculture described in this affiliate and throughout the report). Without additional investment, the current U.Due south. beast agricultural research enterprise will have difficulty meeting the expected need for brute food products in 2050.

BOX ane-1

Selected Challenges to Meeting Sustainable Creature Agriculture by 2050. Growth in demand for animal protein due to: Population growth

Animal poly peptide currently provides 13 percent of the calories produced globally from agronomics and represents 26 percent of the globe's dietary protein (Fraser, 2014). In the United States, 133.9 lbs of animal protein were consumed in 2012, and fauna products accounted for over half of the value of agronomical product (USDA ERS, 2014)^². Brute poly peptide continues to be a pregnant office of the American nutrition, with more than 37 meg tons of meat consumed annually (U.Southward. Census Bureau, 2011). In the United States lonely, animal products account for over one-half of the value of agricultural products (USDA, 2014b). The United States has the largest fed-cattle industry in the world and is the globe'due south largest producer of high-quality^{^three}, grain-fed beefiness. The farm value of milk production in the Usa is second but to beef among food animal industries and equal to corn. The U.S. swine industry has seen a rapid shift to fewer and larger operations associated with technological change and an evolving industry structure that has led to pork production bookkeeping for virtually x percent of the world's supply and the U.s.a. becoming the largest pork exporter in 2005 (America'due south Pork Checkoff, 2009). The U.Southward. poultry manufacture is the world'due south largest producer and second largest exporter of poultry meat, and is a major egg producer. Poultry products will continue to increment the amount and share of the animal protein marketplace desired by the American consumer too as the export market (USDA, 2014b). In 2014, the value of U.Due south. food animal production was projected to be nigh $185 billion and the value of crop product projected to exist $195 billion, representing 42 and 44 per centum, respectively, of the total agronomical sector value (USDA ERS, 2014). The United States, however, is allocating less than 0.xx percent, including both National Institute of Food and Agriculture and USDA Agricultural Research Service appropriations, of the U.S. nutrient fauna production value back into publicly funded animate being science inquiry.

Worldwide, the Food and Agronomics System (FAO) estimates that at that place will be a 73 pct increase in meat and egg consumption and a 58 percent increase in dairy consumption over 2011 levels by the year 2050 (McLeod, 2011). This increase will not be evenly distributed, however; models indicate that between 2000 and 2050, North America and Europe will meet little growth in creature protein consumption, whereas consumption in Asia and Africa will more than double. Food beast consumption in Latin America and the Caribbean will also increase significantly (Rosegrant et al., 2009). Governments are grappling with how to address this increased demand, especially given finite natural resources.

Aquaculture likewise critically contributes to the world's food supply, and demand continues to increase as incomes rise. The FAO reports that over the by five decades, the globe fish food supply has outpaced global population growth and has come to establish an of import source of nutritious food and animal protein for much of the world's population (FAO, 2014). Of particular note is the growth in global trade in fishery products. According to the FAO, developing economies, whose exports represented just 34 percentage of world trade in 1982, saw their share rise to 54 percent of total fishery export value past 2012 (FAO, 2014). For many developing nations, fish trade represents a pregnant source of foreign currency earnings in add-on to its of import role in income generation, employment, food security, and nutrition. Aquaculture's important part as the fastest growing food production sector in the world to complement other animal agricultural production sectors. Globally, the specific growth charge per unit of aquaculture since its emergence near 60 years ago is approximately 7.4 percent, whereas all other livestock has averaged about 2.6 percentage during that aforementioned menses. The virtually untapped oceanic shelf resources offering possibilities that are not available for the terrestrial-based animal agriculture. Only well-nigh 0.05 percent of the available shelf area is currently used for farming, and adverse environmental impacts associated with mariculture are less than the terrestrial-based counterparts. Also, considering of its infancy, it has had to accost unique problems that are specific to its rapid growth. The feed efficiency of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks is a unique attribute that is a very important contributor to sustainable intensification. The FAO likewise reports that developed countries keep to dominate world imports of fish and fishery products, although their share has decreased in recent years.

Although investment in agricultural enquiry and evolution (R&D) continues to be i of the most productive investments, with rates of render betwixt 30 and 75 pct, it has been neglected, particularly in low-income countries (FAO, 2009a). The remarkable advances in animal agronomics in recent years have been a issue of R&D and the adoption of new technologies, peculiarly in areas such as food safety, genetics and convenance, reproductive efficiencies, nutrition, and disease command (Roberts et al., 2009). These accept led to major productivity gains in various species.

Animal scientific discipline research has improved creature productivity and thus decreased the costs of creature products to consumers, increased nutrient prophylactic and food security, decreased environmental impacts of livestock and poultry product, and addressed public concerns about animal welfare.

Despite the demonstrated importance of brute agricultural enquiry to current global food security, the field faces several meaning impediments that limit the power to sustainably increment productivity to encounter future global need. Recognizing this gap between the animal agricultural research enterprise and the challenges related to global food security, the National Research Council (NRC) convened an ad hoc committee of experts to prepare a report that identifies disquisitional areas of R&D, technologies, and resource needs for research in the field of animal agriculture, both nationally and internationally. Specifically, the committee was tasked to prepare a report to identify critical areas of R&D, technologies, and resources needs for research in the field of animal agriculture nationally and internationally. Specifically, the commission was asked to appraise global demand for products of animal origin in 2050 within the framework of ensuring global nutrient security; evaluate how climatic change and limited natural resources may impact the ability to encounter future global demand for beast products in sustainable production systems, including typical conventional, alternative, and evolving animal product systems in the United States and internationally; and place factors that may bear on the ability of the Usa to meet demand for animate being products, including the need for trained human capital, production prophylactic and quality, effective advice, and adoption of new noesis, data and technologies. The commission was also tasked with identifying the needs for human capital development, engineering science transfer, and information systems for emerging and evolving animal production systems in developing countries; identifying the resources needed to develop and disseminate this knowledge and these technologies; and describing the evolution of sustainable brute product systems relevant to production and production efficiency metrics in the United States and in developing countries.

COMMITTEE'S APPROACH TO THE Task

The committee's task was based upon 3 underlying assumptions which the committee did not reexamine in depth. First, global animal protein consumption will continue to increment based on population growth and increased per capita beast protein consumption. At that place is a wealth of literature to support this assumption, some of which is cited above. Second, restricted resources (eastward.chiliad., water, land, energy, and capital) and global ecology alter will drive circuitous agricultural decisions that touch research needs. 3rd, current and foreseeable rapid advances in basic biological sciences provide an unparalleled opportunity to maximize the yield of investments in animate being science R&D (Effigy 1-1; Research, Didactics and Economics Task Force, 2004). The committee was tasked with identifying the research needed to achieve the goal of providing adequate, safety, and affordable nutritious food to the global population, taking into account disquisitional issues such as public agreement and values, food safety, poverty, merchandise barriers, socioeconomic dynamics, and health and diet. This report is a result of the committee'south deliberations based on these assumptions and contributing factors. The committee'southward goal was to identify where research should focus so that "sustainable intensification" tin can be accomplished and the protein needs of the projected global population in 2050 tin can be met. The success of intensive sustainable aquaculture is based on increasing production while simultaneously minimizing/eliminating negative impacts on the environment. The committee, therefore, has recommended critical areas of enquiry based on the quantitative reduction of impacts such as carbon footprint and waste material. The recommendations provided should guide agencies in the establishment of research priorities (targets) that have quantitative-based goals in listen.

Figure 1-i

Overview of inputs affecting animal agricultural needs. SOURCE: Committee generated.

The commission operated under a fast-rails approach that began in March 2014 and concluded with the submission of the revised report in November 2014. This approach constrained deliberations to those areas conspicuously within the boundaries of the task; yet, the report presents many areas that can be expanded upon and advanced in future deliberations on the subject field of animal agricultural research needs. The committee recognizes that it is not unusual for an NRC committee charged with evaluating research to find that the area has been relatively underfunded. Accordingly, the committee went out of its mode to develop analyses that evaluated this contention, which are detailed in Affiliate 5.

The committee held meetings in March, May, July, and September 2014. Data-gathering sessions that were open to the public were held during both the March and May meetings. The July meeting was a calendar week-long intensive session, which included extensive reviews of relevant literature, deliberation, and drafting of report text; the September meeting was a closed writing session. During the March meeting, the committee heard from each of the study sponsors: the Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Innovation Middle for U.South. Dairy, the National Cattlemen'southward Beef Clan, the National Pork Board, Tyson Foods, Inc., the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and U.S. Poultry & Egg Association. The commission also heard from various nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), industry, and federal agencies providing their perspectives on the need for beast scientific discipline enquiry. Presenters at the May meeting represented academia, NGOs, and federal agencies, and addressed such topics equally upstanding considerations in animal scientific discipline research, sustainable aquaculture, funding equity for the field, and the bear upon of climatic change on beast agriculture. The commission reviewed and built upon a large body of written material on creature science issues, including literature that informed the committee on enquiry needs for the field. The available information included other NRC reports, FAO reports, published enquiry articles, and both U.Due south. and international governmental reports. The committee as well reviewed many other documents related to USDA'south upkeep and activities.

The committee recognizes that in that location are public organizations and literature advocating for reducing and/or eliminating the amount of animal poly peptide in our diets with the rationale that this would improve our health and well-being and reduce the bear upon of these agricultural systems on the surround (east.g., a meatless Monday entrada has gained back up from many governmental and nonprofit organizations [Righter, 2012]). The committee does non, still, address these issues considering it was specifically tasked with identifying enquiry needs for brute agriculture in light of the projected global increase in man consumption of creature protein. The committee notes that under any scenario, there is value to R&D that improves the efficiency of animal poly peptide production.

The committee discussed at length the charge given to it within the context of the expertise of its membership and fourth dimension constraints regarding the commitment of the study. The critical needs for research in animal agriculture are expansive and get well across the focus of this report. The commission adhered to its chief charge, which was to consider coming together the animal production demands for 2050 in a sustainable manner across different production systems with potent consideration of trained homo capital, production prophylactic, and effective technologies. We interpreted the charge to focus on product rather than, for example, the ethical goal of food equity. Nevertheless, the report points to nonproduction issues throughout.

The committee's task was not to set out research directions for studies on the social and policy effects of animate being food production per se, but to make recommendations specifically for animal science enquiry. Likewise, the expertise of the commission members did non allow for specific recommendations to be made about the highest-priority social sciences research topics.

In considering the charge to discuss global bug in animal agriculture, the committee noted that there is marked variability among and inside different countries in their beast agronomical practices and needs, and much overlap with research needs in the Us. These reverberate a variety of factors including climate, soil characteristics, and cultural practices. Prominent problems in the United States are overconsumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, whereas in developing countries, public health issues, food security, undernutrition, and adaptation to climatic change take priority. For perhaps a billion people, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, Due south and Southeast Asia, and other developing areas, the raising of nutrient animals fulfills a social need beyond the provision of food (Herrero and Thornton, 2013; Herrero et al., 2013a). In the United States, there exists a broad range of agricultural systems that reverberate geographical as well every bit cultural factors related to the different groups of immigrants who settled in dissimilar parts of the state.

Many agrarian societies are rapidly being affected by globalization of nutrient supplies and urbanization, which are trends that are anticipated to go along. Some countries, such as Brazil, have rapidly emerging economies characterized by great increases in agronomical productivity that match or exceed that of the United States or Europe. Accordingly, the traditional distinction betwixt developed and developing countries is overly simplistic. In this report, the committee provides a cursory overview of the extensive variability in creature agriculture among developed and developing countries and individual countries. This provides a footing for discussion of research and general needs for human capital development, technology transfer, and information systems. The committee does not become into details for each country or region beyond the United states of america.

The commission believes that the developed and non-adult dichotomy is not as useful as in the past. Gradations of economies exist that cloud the stardom and possible generalities for either type. In terms of animal agriculture in particular, precipitous distinctions are hard. For example, Brazil is now the global leader in soybean production by which information technology has expanded its cattle manufacture. Argentina has similarly expanded its cattle industry, and India is at present expected to be the earth'southward leader in dairy production.

Finally, in considering rural land apply, the committee recognizes that to some extent the United States and developing countries are going in opposite directions. The United States is characterized by loss of agricultural land to urban sprawl. The U.S. population is moving from inner cities to suburbs in which people alive in private homes on quarter-acre plots and in which farms are converted into shopping malls and schools with big asphalt parking areas. In contrast, the developing world continues to exist characterized past urbanization acquired by the movement of rural subsistence agricultural workers to cities. This difference is accentuated past the shift in the United states of america from an economy based on factories, which requires big numbers of workers to be full-bodied in a specific area, to a knowledge-based economy in which productive labor can use modernistic Internet-based technology with less need to congregate in central locations. Europe differs from the United States by having stronger rules to protect its farmland from encroachment by cities, which is an arroyo buttressed by trade barriers to protect otherwise marginal agricultural producers.

In this introductory chapter, the commission explores the role of research in understanding and coming together global food demand, and broadly discusses the role of sustainability and of systems approaches in considering animal science inquiry needs. Major uncertainties, potential opportunities, and likely hindrances related to inquiry needs for creature agronomics are briefly reviewed. Farther chapters expand on these subjects.

DEFINING Agronomical SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability has progressed from a goal commencement enunciated in the 1980s in the landmark report Our Mutual Futurity (WCED, 1987) to specific actionable frameworks that tin exist used to guide determination making (NRC, 2011, 2013; see too Alliance for Sustainable Agriculture^⁴ and Sustainability Consortium^{^v}). It is interpreted variously past different research communities. The 1987 "Bruntland Report" focuses on sustainable development and defines it equally meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of hereafter generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987). This definition mirrors that of the 1969 U.Due south. National Environmental Policy Act, which described the need to "create and maintain weather condition, under which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony, that permit fulfilling the social, economic, and other requirements of nowadays and future generations" (42 The statesC. § 4331(a)). That policy expresses what is now described as sustainability, and has been cited previously in NRC reports (NRC, 2011, 2013). With the emergence of world system, ecosystem, and natural capital letter research, the role of the environment in the sustainability concept was enlarged to include the provisioning of humankind without threatening the performance of the globe system, in which "provisioning humankind" includes socioeconomic development, akin to the Bruntland study (NRC, 1999; Kates et al., 2001). The fundamental shift, therefore, is the maintenance of performance ecosystems, landscapes, and the earth system to provide the environmental services that nature provides and humankind wants.

Agricultural sustainability, a focus of this report, is defined by the NRC (2010) equally having four generally agreed-upon goals consequent with the visions of sustainability every bit noted above:

Satisfy homo food, feed and fiber needs, and contribute to biofuel needs.
Heighten ecology quality and the resource base of operations.
Sustain the economic viability of agriculture.
Enhance the quality of life for farmers, subcontract workers, and social club equally a whole.

Sustainability is all-time evaluated non as a detail terminate state, but as a process that moves farming systems along a trajectory toward greater sustainability on each of the four goals.

Davidson (2002) similarly notes that "agriculture must be internally sustainable, externally sustainable, and also serve equally a resource that is available to support other sectors of the economy and society. A system that pays heed to each of these three areas is likely to exist able to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Internal sustainability refers to preserving the agronomical resource base of operations, including avoiding degradation of soil and water. It includes responding to the threats of animate being diseases, the usual vagaries of climate and market forces, and loss of state and h2o to nonagricultural uses. Also included is the maintenance of the man capital letter necessary to sustain agricultural communities through succeeding generations. External sustainability refers to avoiding the externalities of farm production imposed on other natural resources and the environment and on the nonagricultural club. Responsive sustainability requires agriculture to exist sufficiently vibrant and resilient in the face of crises and opportunities in other sectors of the economy, including global climatic change. This third heading of responsive sustainability requires that agriculture, including fauna production systems, must be sufficiently dynamic and flexible to respond to crises in other societal sectors.

By definition, sustainability is forward looking and addresses intergenerational and longer timescales in inquiry and planning that operate at the ecosystem level, whereby imbalances are avoided or minimized. Under sustainable practices, the impacts of animal agriculture positively contribute to the provision of ecosystem services. These timescales and the range of factors considered—economic, social, and ecology—in sustainability approaches raise a series of issues about advisable metrics for gauging and comparing creature agricultural productivity, which are considered in depth in Affiliate three. Sustainability also has implications across geographical areas, which tin can differ depending upon social and ecology bug. Approaches that can increment local sustainability may have adverse impacts on the region, and effective approaches to regional sustainability may have adverse global impacts.

An important issue in considering challenges to sustainability is the dynamic interrelation betwixt various seemingly disparate actions. In Box 1-two, the committee describes the documented impact of overfishing off of the westward coast of Africa, leading to a price increase for fish in the local market place and ultimately to an increase in bushmeat hunting. This had an bear on on biodiversity, endangered species, and a broad variety of processes pertinent to human health and sustainability.

BOX 1-2

Broad Implications of Animal Protein Availability: Bear on on Endangered Species and Bushmeat Hunting. Overfishing off the west coast of Africa leading to price increases for fish in local markets has been causally associated with an increase in (more...)

Whatever the definition, and however applied to animal agriculture, a key to ensuring a sustainable nutrient system is a holistic systems approach (Chapter 3). Holistic systems approaches have go more of import as the planet'due south resources necessary to sustain an increasing population are increasingly connected and are farther being challenged by global environmental changes. Beneath is a summary of the sustainability challenges facing the field of animal agriculture in the context of meeting global food security challenges and the three pillars of sustainability (environmental, economic, and social).

Environmental Considerations for Animal Agriculture

If the natural ecosystem is defined equally i that is unaffected by humans, then agriculture is inherently disruptive. Livestock is the largest land-use sector on Earth, occupying thirty percent of the Earth'due south water ice-free surface (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Reid et al., 2008). According to Steinfeld (2014), fifty percent of the arable country in industrialized countries is used to grow creature feed. Livestock utilizes one-tertiary of global cropland for animal feed production, is responsible for 72 percent of deforestation, and as a sector consumes 32 percent of global freshwater (Herrero, 2014). The water used past the livestock sector is over 8 percent of global human water utilise (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Given this context, the increased demand for creature protein has important implications for natural resources.

Animal agriculture also has implications for global environmental change, which refers to the totality of changes, both natural and anthropogenic in origin, under way in the earth organization, from ecosystems to climate change. Animal agriculture affects these changes, in some cases significantly, and must accommodate to them in order to provide the quantity and affordability level of animal products expected by society. For case, animal agriculture is responsible for near 14.5 pct of global GHG emissions, according to the FAO (Gerber et al., 2013). Major contributors are nitrous oxide (N2O) from manure storage and application (25 per centum), carbon dioxide (CO2) from deforestation (34 pct), and marsh gas (CH4) from enteric fermentation of ruminants (26 percentage). The ii.vii billion tons of CO2 from animal agriculture is equivalent to "nine percent of all global anthropogenic CO2 emissions; the two.2 billion tons of CH4 emissions from animal agriculture represent 37 percent of global anthropogenic CH4 emissions; and the 2.ii billion tons of N2O emissions comprise 65 percent of total global anthropogenic N2O emissions" (Steinfeld, 2014). In that location are also pregnant variations in the emissions from dissimilar species; these differences are further pronounced when comparing developed and developing nations (de Vries and de Boer, 2010). FAO reported in 2011 that 44 pct of agriculture-related GHG outputs occurred in Asia, 25 per centum in the Americas, fifteen per centum in Africa, 12 per centum in Europe, and 4 pct in Oceania (Tubiello et al., 2014). The ecology and resource impact of beast agriculture has long-run economic implications all along the animal supply chain from producers to animal product consumers. Economic modeling of this impact tin can inform conclusion-makers about the needed technical and policy responses. For example, reducing the GHG emissions of beef cattle through investments in applied science could amend not only the bottom line of the rancher, but besides the whole economic sustainability of the manufacture.

Sustainable Intensification

The lower global climatic change footprint of U.S. creature agriculture compared to historic conditions is related to the intensification of beast agriculture (Chapter 3)^⁶. Briefly, as detailed below, the ability to concentrate creature agriculture and to enhance productivity has been made feasible past public-funded and industry-funded enquiry, ranging from enhancing the birth number and health of young animals to improvements in the pick and delivery of feed. Inquiry has also been of importance in mitigating the threats to land, water, and health caused by wastes and to other concerns, such as animal welfare associated with full-bodied animal feeding operations; however, these issues persist and are the cause of increasing consumer concerns. Because of the multiple roles of food animals in the developing world, incentives for sustainable intensification may too include minimizing the costs of animal protein production as a way to maintain an effective nutrient brute population. Although sustainable intensification has been adopted as a policy goal for national and international institutions, it has also been subject to criticism. Box one-iii includes areas that interface with sustainable intensification and means that shared agendas might best be pursued (Garnett et al., 2013).

BOX 1-3

Policy Goals Interfacing with Sustainable Intensification (SI). Identifying the demand for increased nutrient security amid increasing global populations and wealth, Garnett et al. (2013) provided a nuanced discussion of SI every bit a policy objective. These authors (more...)

Despite these criticisms, given animal agriculture's immense environmental touch amid increases in demand for beast protein, sustainable intensification has go a potential means for reaching product goals while preserving environmental quality. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change argues that the sustainable intensification of agriculture can decrease GHG emissions per unit of agricultural production (IPCC, 2014), and a written report by FAO has acknowledged that "intensification—in terms of increased productivity both in food animal production and in feed crop agronomics—can reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and pasture deposition" (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Evidence in the report of agronomical production supports these claims, with intensification resulting in net avoided emissions of 161 gigatons of carbon between 1961 and 2005, despite increased fertilizer production and use (Burney et al., 2010). Evidence equally to the environmental success of sustainable intensification has also been observed in the U.S. beef industry, with the carbon footprint per billion kilograms of beefiness beingness reduced by 16.3 percentage when comparing 2007 and 1977 values (Capper, 2011). Similarly, the U.S. dairy manufacture has reduced feed employ by 77 percent, land use by 90 percent, and water apply by 65 pct, and has achieved a 63 per centum decrease in GHG emissions per kilogram of milk from 1944 to 2007 (Capper et al., 2009).

Economical Considerations for Animal Agriculture

The economic importance of animal agriculture cannot be overstated. This sector contributes 40 percent of the global value of agricultural production and supports the livelihoods and food security of about a billion people (FAO, 2009b). Information technology represents 1.five percent of world gdp (GDP), and in industrialized countries livestock production comprises more than than half of the agriculture-related GDP (Herrero et al., 2013b). This sector has approximately $1.4 trillion in avails and employs one.3 billion people, including from 400 million to over 700 million of the world'due south poor who rely on animals for meat, milk, and fertilizer (Herrero et al., 2013a). In the United states, the annual economic value of livestock and poultry sales exceeds $183 billion (USDA ERS, 2014). In the European Marriage, the livestock sector contributes about 130 billion euros annually to the European economy (Brute Task Strength, 2013).

Beast protein production is expected to grow from 2014 to 2023, albeit at a slower charge per unit of ane.6 per centum per yr, compared to the previous decade (OECD-FAO, 2014). Need for meat of all types is expected to increment past 53 million tons over this time period, with 58 pct of this increase coming from the Asia and Pacific region, and xviii percentage from Latin America and the Caribbean contributing. The adult countries of N America and Europe are expected to contribute 15 percentage to this growth, and Africa is projected to contribute 7 percentage. Meat trade is projected to grow slower than in the past decade, and in global terms just over 11 percent of meat output will be traded. The most significant import demand growth originates from Asia, which represents the greatest share of additional imports for all meat types (OECD-FAO, 2014). By the end of this decade, poultry meat product is projected to overtake pork production, making poultry the number one animal protein source globally.

America's freshwater and marine aquaculture manufacture meets only 5 to 7 percent of U.S. need for seafood (NOAA, 2012). Products of marine aquaculture in the United States correspond x percent of the full domestic product (206,767 tonnes). In 2012, the U.S. seafood trade deficit surpassed $x billion for the first time (NOAA, 2012) with the United States being the 2nd highest importer of seafood in the globe with a hateful almanac increase of 5.1 pct from 2002 to 2012. In 2013, the total value of aquaculture sales from U.S. production was $i.37 billion, up from $1.09 billion in 2005, (USDA, 2014a), a 25.vii pct increase. This virtually contempo value of U.S.-produced nutrient fish (fish, crustaceans, and mollusks) is approximately 1 pct of the total value globally ($137.seven billion). Key findings from an OECD-FAO (2014) study projecting global meat consumption and production growth can be found in Box 1-4 (excluding aquaculture). Global aggregate production and demand for meat products (excluding aquaculture) tin can be found in Table 1-one.

BOX i-4

Key Findings from OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook (2014): Creature Agriculture from 2014 to 2023. "Nominal meat prices are expected to remain high throughout the outlook menstruation. Animal feed costs remain above celebrated norms and rise costs (more...)

TABLE 1-1

By and Time to come Amass Production and Consumption for Meat Products.

Social Considerations for Animal Agriculture

Information technology is condign increasingly apparent that for research advances in animate being productivity to be useful, consideration must be given to the social norms of the communities and countries in which they are to be applied. Studies have indicated that there are a host of issues beyond food safety and quality that influence the acceptability, and hence the sustainability, of existing and new animal agricultural practices. These factors include ecology, economical, and social concerns (NRC, 2010), with the latter playing an increasingly of import office not only with respect to the regulatory decision-making process, simply in terms of shaping consumer and supply-chain purchasing decisions in many countries (Mench, 2008; Matthews and Hemsworth, 2012). Social concerns include those related to animal welfare, equity (e.g., fair labor practices, including agricultural worker health and condom and protection of vulnerable human being populations and rural communities), corporate social responsibility and business ideals, food security, agronomical and food traditions, naturalness of food products, and the apply of biotechnology in food product (NRC, 2010; Anthony, 2012; Niles, 2013; Lister et al., 2014).

Many animal agronomical issues too interface with human wellness, starting with sufficient availability to avoid famine and undernutrition to concerns about overconsumption and the human relationship of eating meat to diseases prevalent in both the developed and developing globe (Keats and Wiggins, 2014). Disease transmission from animals to humans is some other main outcome of interest to human health. Outcomes of enquiry relating micronutrient intake to positive and negative effects on man health may guide breeding practices, including genetic modification of animals to achieve dietary goals (e.grand., lower-cholesterol eggs). An issue especially worthy of additional inquiry is improving response to the evolution of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms that threaten homo and brute health.

Animal agricultural productivity likewise depends upon the wellness of the agriculture workforce. Agriculture has historically been a dangerous trade and remains so today (OSHA, 2014). U.S. agricultural workers accept seven times the almanac death rate of the average U.Due south. workforce (24.9 vs. iii.5 deaths per 100,000 people). This does not include commercial fishery workers who are at the highest fatality risk of almost whatsoever industry (126 deaths per 100,000 people). Creature production agricultural workers' injury rate (half dozen.7 per 100 people) was higher than that of ingather production workers (v.5 per 100 people) (OSHA, 2014). Globally, agronomical worker health risks are often compounded past the lack of technology to replace dangerous practices, the lack of personal protective equipment, and the frequency of child labor. Inquiry on the issue of worker health is commonly the province of health agencies and is divorced from standard agricultural inquiry funding considerations. In the United States, the National Establish of Occupational Safety and Health funds programs related to agricultural worker health. The National Institutes of Health Fogarty Heart has funded global agronomical health programs pairing U.Southward. academic programs with developing countries, in part to train future researchers.

The Millennium Development Goals are particularly valuable in providing metrics that permit measurement of outcomes whereby assessment of impacts on human nutrition, poverty, health, and overall socioeconomic welfare at the customs and household levels can exist confidently assessed. Related to animal wellness and agronomics, 13 zoonoses are responsible for a staggering two.2 billion human illnesses and two.iii million deaths per year, mostly in low-income and middle-income countries. Of the post-2015 evolution goals, several proposed goals include emptying of extreme poverty and sustainable social, economic, and environmental evolution (Kelly et al., 2014).

THE Office OF AND Demand FOR R&D IN ANIMAL SCIENCES

Advances in animal agriculture have been a event of R&D and new technologies, specially in areas such as food safe, genetics and breeding, reproductive efficiencies, diet, affliction control, biotechnology, and the environment (Roberts et al., 2009). Major productivity gains in diverse species are also attributed to R&D in this field. Developments in reproductive technologies will continue to allow dispatch of genetic selection (Hume et al., 2011). The neglect of investment in animal agriculture documented by the committee in Chapter 5 runs contrary to the significant economic value and high rate of render of this sector to the United States and globally. The committee recognizes that there are various sources of funding for R&D in the field, including private funding, but also notes the essential office that public funding plays in addressing longer-term enquiry needs, and peculiarly in supporting research that addresses public goods. The committee has therefore focused its assessment on federal sources in the United States. Equally such, the United States is allocating less than 0.20 percent of the U.Southward. agricultural value in public funding for animal science research.

Additionally, although budgets were relatively flat in terms of nominal dollars for public investment in fauna science research during 2004-2012, the almanac value in U.S. exports for beef increased from $0.viii to $five.5 billion (USMEF, 2012a), pork increased from $2.2 to $half-dozen.3 billion (USMEF, 2012c), lamb increased from $12.3 to $26.2 one thousand thousand (USMEF, 2012b), broiler exports increased from $i.viii billion (2006) to over $4 billion (2012) (USDA ERS, 2013), and dairy exports increased from $ane.29 billion (2006) to $five.28 billion (2013) (U.S. Dairy Export Council, 2014). The increased value in U.S. exports demonstrates the importance of animal agriculture to the U.Southward. economy and the need to continue to invest in the research that has driven gains in this of import industry.

The FAO stated that "the livestock sector requires renewed attention and investments from the agricultural research and development community and robust institutional and governance mechanisms that reverberate the diversity within the sector…The challenges posed by the livestock sector cannot be solved by a single cord of actions or by individual actors alone. They require integrated efforts past a wide range of stakeholders" (FAO, 2009b).

Impediments and Opportunities: Reinvigorating Animal Sciences Research

The committee highlights in the report the limitations to funding facing fauna science research. Information technology too identifies several other impediments to developing research that optimizes sustainable beast agronomics domestically and globally, and for which the committee based its subsequent recommendations. These include inadequate research infrastructure, including personnel, facilities and other organizational issues; political and social impediments; bereft collaboration amid government, industry, and academia, different disciplines, and basic and applied sciences and technologies; and problems in engineering science transfer. Although skilful metrics are available for quantifying research outcomes, there is a need to evolve a ameliorate process for identifying and funding future inquiry needs. Finally, there is a lack of strategic planning for the field that cuts across the unlike dimensions of sustainability, considers various timescales and intergenerational issues, and carefully considers the implications of deportment across local, regional, and global dimensions.

Despite these impediments, the committee notes many opportunities to improve agricultural productivity in both the The states and the developing earth. These include advances in general biological science pertinent to better understanding animal growth, lactation, and welfare; convenance and growth techniques; genetics, including improved growth characteristics and protection confronting diseases; technological advances such every bit minimizing animal product wastes, including recycling, improving creature welfare, and minimizing spoilage of food (e.m., through amend packaging); advances in developing research approaches that involve cooperation betwixt scientists and multiple stakeholders, especially smallholder nutrient animal producers; and finally advances in social sciences, such as improved communication among the public, the food fauna industry, and scientists (Box 1-5).

BOX i-5

Opportunities to Better Research That Optimizes Sustainable Animal Agriculture. Advances in general biological science and other basic enquiry pertinent to understanding animal growth and welfare Advances in convenance and growth techniques

To keep to the statement of task, the committee had to focus on higher-level problems that were crosscutting to many developing regions of the world and presents these challenges throughout Chapter 4. The committee had to prioritize what it could accost inside the study and could not accost all differences in trends beyond all dissimilar regions, trends, and species around the world. Information technology chose to present larger regions and systems, such equally increasing production in poultry across Africa and aquaculture across Asia, discussed in Chapter 4, that would have impacts beyond larger regions. The committee acknowledges that there are regional differences in per capita creature production consumption patterns that are of import to consider; nevertheless, it was non able to discuss this in great item.

The committee is cognizant of the inherent uncertainties in any research planning try that attempts to wait beyond a few years, permit lone i that is given a target date 36 years from the present. Whatsoever such planning effort is subject to uncertainties in demand, global climate change and other environmental impacts, social and regulatory issues affecting acceptability of animal agricultural do and consumer preferences, trade issues, and pertinent bones scientific advances. The committee'south highest confidence is in the prediction that fauna agronomical productivity volition be significantly impacted by at least one major factor that is non foreseen today, which itself is a reason to have available a vibrant creature agronomical research enterprise capable of responding to this unforeseen threat (Box ane-6). The rest of the report, including the committee'south findings, recommendations, and research priorities, is the committee's try to cover the opportunities available to heighten and reinvigorate the field, while recognizing these circuitous uncertainties.

BOX 1-vi

Major Uncertainties in the Assessment of Inquiry Needs and Opportunities in Sustainable Animal Agriculture for 2050. The extent of the touch on of global environmental change on creature foodstocks and habitats The rate of development of new scientific understanding (more...)

STRUCTURE OF THE Study

The residue of the report is organized into five capacity. Affiliate ii provides a wide overview of the sustainability challenges associated with feeding a population of 10 billion people in 2050, particularly given the increased demand for fauna protein. Chapter 3 discusses research needs for the field of animal agriculture from the U.Southward. perspective, including priorities identified by previous entities (other examples of these research priorities are included in Appendixes E-I). Affiliate four describes research needs at the global level. In its deliberations, the commission came to the recognition that scarcity of human being resources capable of meeting the challenge was a major factor underlying all animal agronomical research planning for the future. On the basis of this finding, the commission decided to write a separate chapter that highlights this upshot rather than separately consider this result within each of the chapters. Accordingly, Affiliate five focuses on the capacity-building and infrastructure needs for enquiry in food security and fauna sciences in the United States. Affiliate six provides a summary of the committee'south recommendations.

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1: When using the term creature agriculture the committee is referring to livestock, poultry, and aquaculture in total. Livestock includes cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and other domestic animals ordinarily raised or used on the farm. Domesticated fowl are considered poultry and not livestock (29 CFR § 780.328). Aquaculture, also known as fish or shellfish farming, refers to the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of plants and animals in all types of water environments including ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea (NOAA, 2014). The committee uses the term animal sciences to refer to all disciplines currently contributing to animal food production systems. These disciplines are more often than not housed in departments focused on conventional animal sciences, animal husbandry, nutrient sciences, dairy husbandry, poultry husbandry, veterinary science, veterinary medicine, and agronomical economics. Every bit divers by the 1996 Globe Nutrient Summit, nutrient security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic admission to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 1996).
2: Animal protein in this context is defined as red and white meat including poultry, dairy and its products, eggs and their products, and all fish and shellfish.
3: The commission defines loftier-quality meat in terms of providing protein and caloric value. The committee recognizes that the organoleptic properties of meat may lead to overeating, obesity, and attendant diseases, just discussing these factors is beyond the accuse to the committee.
iv
5
6: Co-ordinate to the U.Southward. Global Climate change Program, global change refers to "changes in the global surround that may alter the capacity of the Earth to sustain life. Global modify encompasses climatic change, but it also includes other critical drivers of environmental change that may interact with climate change, such equally land use modify, the alteration of the water bicycle, changes in biogeochemical cycles, and biodiversity loss" (U.South. Global Change Inquiry Program, 2014).

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK285726/

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